The Place of Literature in
the Language Classroom
Betty Sekarasih Hadi Yani, S.Pd
A. Introduction
The issue of literature in the language classroom has
been debatable in some periods. In the early years of this century literature was
considered of high prestige in language study and access to literary works and was
assumed as part of the purpose of language learning (Widdowson:1984). The
approach was characterized by a concentration on the classics assuming that if
the students were continually exposed to the best uses of the English language,
it would in some sense ‘rub off’ on their own performance in the language.
(Short and Cadlin 1989:91). However, on the one hand the difficulty and the
inaccessibility of many literary texts to non-native English speaking students
and on the other, the lack of a consistent and suitable methodology for the
teaching of literature brought about rather the opposite effect than the
expected one. The literature class consisted often of an enthusiastic
teacher-orator and
passive students being ‘too busy writing in translations of unfamiliar words to
respond to the text’ (Long 1986:42). The class is time consuming and seemingly
painful to the students because they have to do word by word translation of the
text.
The place
and the role of literature in the language classroom was questioned furthermore
by the ELT approaches during the period 1960-1980, which did not encourage
students to develop a ‘feeling for language, of response to texts’ (Long
1986:42-45). Structuralism on the one hand, with the emphasis on correctness in
grammatical form and repetition of a restricted lexis was incompatible with the
teaching of literature. As Widdowson commented:
Literature, and poetry
in particular, has a way of exploiting resources in a language which have not
been codified as correct usage. It is therefore misleading as a model…….it has
no place in an approach to teaching that insists on the gradual accumulation of
correct linguistic forms
( Widdowson 1984:162)
On the other
hand, the Communicative approach to language teaching during the 1970’s and
early 1980’s emphasized the study of the language for practical purposes and
since literature has no obvious practical uses it contributed nothing to the
utilitarian objectives of language teaching thus, it had no place in the
language classroom. The inclusion of literature was ‘a potentially disruptive
influence in the well-ordered world of the carefully controlled language
courses’ (Widdowson 1984:161).
However,
during the 1980s there was a strong reawakening of interest in literature and
language teaching. Linguists and ELT scholars ( Widdowson 1975, Brumfit 1985,
Long 1986, Long and Carter 1991 among others) argued not only for the value of
teaching literature in the language classroom but for the necessity as well of
re-inventing a different pedagogical approach for non-native speakers of
English. The pedagogical interface of literature and language teaching should
become the students’ responses to the text for the reason that:
….the teaching of
literature is an arid business unless there is a response, and even negative
responses can create an interesting classroom situation.
(Long 1986: 42)
In Indonesia,
the objective of English teaching learning activity in SMU or SMK is to develop
students’ communicative competence which covers the four language skills namely
reading, speaking, listening and writing. The approach used in English teaching
learning process in SMU or SMK is the communicative approach. Furthermore it is
stated that communicative competence should include cross-cultural
understanding. Communicative competence is more than acquiring mastery of structure and
form. It also involves acquiring the ability to interpret discourse in all its
social and cultural contexts. For this reason, the use of literature in the
language classroom can provide a powerful pedagogic tool in learners’
linguistic development. Fries and Lado (1977: 149) state that to deal with the culture and
life of the people of the language being learned is not just an adjunct of a
practical language course but also an essential feature of every stage of
language learning. Literature is believed to be one of the ways to help the
students in learning the culture of the language they learn.
In the history of English language teaching for SMU and
SMK students, English literature has never been included in the curriculum. The
absence of English literature in English curriculum for SMU or SMK is caused by
several reasons. Firstly, the consideration that literature is not really
useful to be taught to the students. It is because the language of literature
is considered to be far away from the utterance of daily communication and that
is not relevant to the demand of the particular language uses in business,
trade, travel and tourism, advertising, etc. And the other reasons why teachers often consider
literature inappropriate to the language classroom may be found in the common
beliefs held about literature and literary language. Firstly, the creative use
of language in poetry and prose often deviates from the conventions and rules
which govern standard, non-literary discourse, as in the case of poetry where
grammar and lexis may be manipulated to serve orthographic or phonological
features of the language. Secondly, the reader requires greater effort to
interpret literary texts since meaning is detached from the reader’s immediate
social context; one example is that the “I” in literary discourse may not be
the same person as the writer. The result is that the reader’s “interpretative
procedures” (Widdowson, 1975) may become confused and overloaded. What this
means is that the reader has to infer, anticipate and negotiate meaning from
within the text to a degree that is not required in non-literary discourse. Secondly, there are not many English teachers who are capable of
teaching English literature because their educational background does not
support them to be competent English literature teachers. The third reason is
that there is an assumption that the language of literature is so difficult so
that if it is given to the SMU/SMK students whose vocabulary mastery is limited
from 1500 – 2500 words, the students will not get any use of it. The fourth
reason is probably there is no ready for use English literature learning
material. Indeed, there are many poems, plays and stories available in the
library of the school but again they need teachers’ creativities to develop the
material so that the materials can be suited to the need and language level of
the students.
Literature is important to help the students to learn
the culture of the language they learn. It is almost the only the only possible
way for language learners to get in touch with the culture of the people
speaking the language. Literary works, especially fictions and drama, often
present the imaginative world in which many characters from many different
social and cultural backgrounds are depicted in vivid context. Colid and Slater
(1994:5) state that when reading a literary work, students can discover what a
certain character feels, thinks, possesses; students can find out what the
character believes in, fears, enjoys and they can also see how this character
speaks and behaves behind closed door and thereby learning the culture.
From the exposure above, then what we need to know is “is
there any place for literature in the language classroom?” If so, what are the
roles of literature in the language classroom? And how can we put literature in
our language classroom?
B. Discussion
B.1. Literature
B.1.1. Definition of
literature
In its broad sense, literature
is just about anything written (Kennedy, 1979: ii). If it so then newspaper
articles or gossip, mathematics books or history books, commercial leaflet,
food labels, recipe or even bus ticket are literature. But literature that
becomes our concern here is a kind of art, usually written.
Harry Shaw (1972:201)
defines literature as writing in which expression and form, in connection with
ideas and concerns of universal and permanent interest are its essential
features. From that definition, it can be seen that not all of writings are
literature. It is only the writing, which has specific expression and form and
which contains ideas or concerns that are universal and of permanent interest
can be called literature. Furthermore, Shaw states that the term is correctly
reserved for prose and verse of acknowledged excellence and whose value lies in
its intense, personal and superb expression of life in its varied meaning. (Harry
Shaw, 1972:201)
B.1.2 The language of
literature
The language of literature is
considered to be different from other language uses such as the language of
newspaper or language of specific field such as law, history, mathematics, etc.
But if we are given extracts of texts taken from novels, newspaper articles,
commercial and history books and we are asked to separate the literary ones
from the non-literary ones; we will find it difficult (Lazar, 1992: 6). It is
because there is no so called literary language that can be isolated and
recognized in the same way like, for example, the language of newspaper head
line, or legal language, or language variety of weather forecasting (Brumfit
and Carter, 6).
Literature is not a
language variety (Brumfit and Carter, 6). Literature is just the only context
in which different language variety can be mixed and still admitted. Literature
may proceed creatively on every possible style and register because it has
become one form of discourse in which any use of language is permissible.
The opinion that
the language of literature is different from other language probably due to a
number of features that can be isolated like rhythm, rhyme, alliteration,
figure of speech etc. that are found in reading literary works especially
poetry. Those language feature are arranged and combined in such way to reinforce
the meaning conveyed, and to link with other linguistic devices across the
whole text so that unity and consistency of effects are produced (Brumfit and
Carter,8), But they are certainly not language variety.
In relation to the
language of literature, Tjahjono (1987:34) states that literary language has
some characteristics differing from the language of scientific writing. Those
characteristics are as follows:
a. Literary language is connotative
The language of
scientific writing is usually denotative; it means that it only has one exact
meaning. But the language of literature is generally connotative, i.e. it has
secondary meaning besides its primary meaning and sometimes the secondary
meaning conveys the deeper meaning.
b. Literary language is multi-interpretable
Literary language
tends to arouse multiple interpretations from the readers. This is because of
the connotative language in literature and the different experience of the
readers. There is no final meaning for a literary work because literary work is
just like a little new living, which will keep on developing and arousing
various possible interpretations.
c. Literary language cares about the musicality effect
Musical effect is
sound effect that can arouse the sense of beauty. Beauty in literary works is
usually shown through rhythm, rhyme or alliteration. Poetry is the literary
work that makes use of the rhyme at the most. But it does not mean that there
is not rhyme in other literary works such as novels or short stories. In
fiction, rhyme is created through balanced sentences, variation in the pattern
of the sentences, the length of the sentence and alliteration.
Finally it is
necessary to note Collie and Slater’s assertion (1994: 34) about literary
language. Literary language is relative rather than absolute. There are texts
or parts of text, which show more of the linguistic features associated with
literature than others and that literary language is not completely separated
from other forms of language.
B.2. Language teaching
(Teaching English as Foreign Language)
English is a means of
communication so the teaching of the language aims at developing students’
communicative ability in English which covers the four language skills namely
reading, writing, speaking and listening. For SMU students, the emphasis is
given to the reading skills in order to enable the students to absorb new
development in science and technology. Other language elements such as grammar,
vocabulary, pronunciation and spelling can be given to support the our skills
mentioned above.
The approach of the
teaching of English in SMU is the communicative approach. The application of
this approach gives several implications, as follows:
- Language is a means to express meaning, that is realized through language structure, so that the role of language structure is the means of the expression of meaning.
- That meaning is determined by linguistic feature and context (situation) which is the basic concept of the communicative approach of a language teaching that should be supported by cross understanding.
- Meaning can be realized through different sentences, both in the written or spoken form. A sentence may have different meaning depending on the situation when it is spoken.
- Learning a language is learning to communicate using the target language, both in written and oral communication. It should be supported by learning the elements of the language.
- Motivation is an important factor that affects the success of the learning and motivation is deeply influenced by the degree of “meaning ness” of the learning materials and learning activity of the students.
- The learning materials will be more meaningful if it is similar or close to the students’ own interests, experience and belief. Consequently, students interests, experience and belief should be one of the consideration of the selection of the leaning materials.
- Students are the subject, not just the subject of the teaching and learning process, so that their characteristics should be one of the consideration in every policy/decision making related to the teaching learning process.
- In the teaching and learning process, the role of the teacher is as facilitator to help the students to develop their language skills.
B.3. The Place of Literature
in the Language Classroom
Previously we have raised a question
whether there is a place for literature in the language classroom. The answer
is absolutely yes.As teachers of English our main concern is to help learners acquire
communicative competence. For this reason we tend to focus on teaching standard
forms of linguistic expression. However, despite acquiring linguistic accuracy,
it is apparent that students still have difficulties in comprehending the
nuances, creativity and versatility which characterise even standard and
transactional forms of English. Communicative competence is more than acquiring
mastery of structure and form. It also involves acquiring the ability to
interpret discourse in all its social and cultural contexts. For this reason, the
use of literature in the language classroom can provide a powerful pedagogic
tool in learners’ linguistic development.
Even though, literature is not
explicitly stated in the curriculum, teachers should introduce and teach
literature in the language classroom. Povey in Brumfit and Carter (1991: 191)
gives a reason for teaching literature is a foreign language classroom:
“Literature will increase all language skills
because literature will extend
linguistic knowledge by giving evidence of the
extensive and subtle
vocabulary usage and complex, exact syntax.”
By that, Povey means that in reading literary works, students will
meet many various usage of words due to the writer’s effort to deliver messages
to the readers through text, and
thus enrich the
language of the
learner which leads to
the
Improvement of their language skills.
Language, both spoken and written, comes in a variety
of discourse types and, as teachers of language, we attempt to introduce our
learners to as many of these as possible.The variety and types of discourse are
perhaps best represented by Kinneavy’s communication triangle (1983). This
classification of discourse types includes expressive, which focuses on
personal expression (letters, diaries, etc.); transactional, which
focuses on both the reader and the message (advertising, business letters,
editorials, instructions, etc.); and poetic, which focuses on form and
language (drama, poetry, novels, short stories, etc.). Indeed, all these
discourse types already play a significant role in teaching various aspects of
language such as vocabulary and structure, or testing learners’ comprehension.
The
classification of discourse types in this way would seem to suggest that there
are distinct differences between literary and non-literary discourse. This reflects
a historic divergence between language and literature, which Short (1996)
refers to as a ‘border dispute over territory’ between linguists and literary
critics. This divergence has resulted in the teaching of the two subjects as
‘disconnected pedagogic practices’ (Carter and McRae, 1996: xxiv).
This is not
to say there is no difference between literary and non-literary discourse;
however, Carter and Nash (1990) suggest that rather than perceiving literary
discourse as separate and remote from non-literary discourse, we ought to
consider the variety of text types along a continuum with some being more
literary than others. This view is part of the idea that the separation of
literature from language is a false dualism since literature is language and language
can indeed be literary. It is not difficult to find instances of standard
transactional forms of discourse which make use of a whole array of literary
devices. Headlines and advertisements are common examples of discourse which
exploits literary language. The following examples make explicit use of
alliteration, assonance, register, imagery, ellipsis and rhythm - stylistic
devices which are more commonly associated with literature than with standard,
transactional language.
- Headline: King Khan Goes for Gold (The Scotsman, 28.08.2004)
- Headline: Bookies' bonanza comes at a price (The Scotsman, 28.08.2004)
- Advertisement: You'll never put a better bit of butter on your knife - Country Life butter
- Advertisement: Have a break, have a Kit Kat - Kit Kat chocolate
- Advertisement: Put a tiger in your tank – ESSO
The boundaries which are thought to exist between
literary and non-literary discourse are not so distinct. Indeed, as Widdowson
(1979) suggests, the procedures which are used to interpret literary discourse
are essentially the same for interpreting any type of discourse.
B.4 The roles of
literature in the language classroom
Literature is believed to be very beneficial learning materials.
McKay (1984: 3) states that literature offers pleasure so that student are motivated
to read and ultimately, developing their reading proficiency. She also states
that literature offers insight into human existence, literature offers uses of
language that students can learn to appreciate and use in their own writing,
and that literature offers encouragement to students to compose a record of
their own experience.
Collie and Slater (1994: 12) also formulate four
beneficial points of using literature in a language classroom:
a) Valuable Authentic Materials
Literature offers a bountiful and variety body of
written materials which is important in the sense that it says something about
fundamental human issue and which is enduring rather than ephemeral.
Literature is authentic materials because most works of
literature are not designed to meet a specific purpose in a language teaching.
By this way, learners are exposed to language that is intended for native
speakers of a language and thus, they gain additional familiarity with many
linguistic uses, forms, and conventions, and of the written mode: with irony,
exposition, narration, and so on.
b) Cultural enrichment
it is true that the
world o novel, play or short story is created by its author, but still, it
offers a full and vivid context in which characters from many social
backgrounds can be depicted. A reader can discover their thought, feeling,
custom, possession: what they buy, believe in, fear, enjoy; how they behave and
speak beyond closed door. This imaginative world and quickly give a foreign
reader a feeling for codes and preoccupation that from a society. By reading a
literary work of the foreign language being learned, the learners’ insight of
the target language can be increased.
c) Language enrichment
Literature provides
a rich context in which individual lexical or syntactical items are made more
memorable. By reading a substantial and contextualized text, learners can gain
familiarity with many features of the written language-the formation and
function of sentences, the variety of possible structure, the different ways of
connecting ideas which broaden and enrich their writing skill.
The extensive
reading required in tackling a novel or a long play develops students’ ability
to make inferences from linguistic cues and to deduce meaning from context, both
are useful tools in reading other short materials. As to the oral language
skills, literature can be an effective prompt for oral activity.
d) Personal Involvement
Above all,
literature is helpful in the language learning process because of the personal
involvement that it fosters in the readers. Being engaged imaginatively with
literature enables the learners to shift their attention to the more mechanical
aspects of the foreign language system. When for a period of time the reader is
led to explore a novel, a play or a short story, she/he will become involved
within the text. She is drawn into the text and is eager to find what happens
as the events unfold; she/he feels close to certain characters and shares their
emotional responses. Then the language becomes transparent- the fiction summons
the whole person into its own world (Collie and Slater, 1994)
Similarly, Lazar
(1993) states that the advantages of using literature is motivating materials,
it can give access to cultural background, it can encourage language
acquisition, it expands students’ language awareness, it develops students’
interpretative ability and that it educates the whole person.
a. Motivating materials
Literature exposes
students to a complex theme and fresh, unexpected uses of language. A good
novel or short story may be able to involve the students in the anxiety of
unraveling the plot. A play makes the students engaged in complicated adult
dilemmas. A poem may draw out students’ emotional responses. And if the
materials are carefully chosen, students will feel that what they do in the
classroom is relevant and meaningful to their own lives.
b. Access to Cultural Background
Reading literature
in English encourages students to become broadly aware of the social,
political, historical events which form the background of a particular play or
novel. At the same time, literature seems to provide a way of contextualizing
how a member of a particular society behave in a specific situation.
c. Encouraging Language Acquisition
With limited access
to spoken English, written English becomes important for stimulating language
acquisition. Literature presents a way of stimulating his acquisition because
it provides meaningful and memorable context for processing and interpreting
the new language
d. Expanding students’ language Awareness
Using literature
can help the students to become more sensitive to some of the overall features
of English. Sometimes, literature especially poetry breaks the usual rules of
syntax, collocation and even cohesion. By asking the students to explore such a
deviant use of the language, they are encouraged to think about the norm of
language use and become aware of specific stylistic effect in literary works.
e. Developing students’ interpretative ability
Literature is a
good source for developing students’ ability to infer meaning and to make
interpretation because it is rich in multiple level of meaning and it demands
the readers to be actively involved in ‘teasing out’ the unstated implication
and assumption of the text.
f. Educating the whole person
Beside the
linguistic benefit, literature has a wider function in the classroom because it
can help to stimulate the imagination of the students, to develop their
critical ability and increase their emotional awareness. By asking the students
to respond personally to a text, they
may become more confident to express their own ideas and emotion in English.
They will feel empowered by their ability to grapple with the text and its
language, and to relate it to the value and tradition of their own society
(Lazar, 1993)
Finally, it also can be concluded that the roles of
literature in the language teaching or classroom are:
1. Giving
contribution to the character building.
- Strengthening the behaviors and developing sensitivity toward the living values.
- Helping the students to gain and develop their life skills such as self awareness skill, thinking skill, social skill and academic skill as well.
- Improving the students’ knowledge
- It can form “educated person” who posses maturity, is able to analyze and judge situation, analyze and solve the problem and finally make decision.
B.5 How we can put
literature in the language classroom (Approaches to
teaching literature)
Having decided that integrating
literature into the language teaching syllabus is beneficial to the learners’
linguistic development, we need to select an approach which best serves the
needs of learners and the syllabus. Carter and Long (1991) describe the
rationale for the use of the three main approaches to the teaching of
literature:
The Cultural Model
This model
represents the traditional approach to teaching literature. Such a model
requires learners to explore and interpret the social, political, literary and
historical context of a specific text. By using such a model to teach
literature we not only reveal the universality of such thoughts and ideas but
encourage learners to understand different cultures and ideologies in relation
to their own. This model is largely rejected by those in TEFL since not only
does it tend to be teacher-centred but there is little opportunity for extended
language work.
The Language Model
The most common approach
to literature in the EFL classroom is what Carter and Long (1991) refer to as
the ‘language-based approach’. Such an approach enables learners to access a
text in a systematic and methodical way in order to exemplify specific
linguistic features e.g. literal and figurative language, direct and indirect
speech. This approach lends itself well to the repertoire of strategies used in
language teaching - cloze procedure, prediction exercises, jumbled sentences,
summary writing, creative writing and role play - which all form part of
the repertoire of EFL activities used by teachers to deconstruct literary texts
in order to serve specific linguistic goals. Carter and McRae (1996) describe
this model as taking a ‘reductive’ approach to literature. These activities are
disconnected from the literary goals of the specific text in that they can be
applied to any text. There is little engagement of the learner with the text
other than for purely linguistic practice; literature is used in a rather
purposeless and mechanistic way in order to provide for a series of language
activities orchestrated by the teacher.
The Personal Growth Model
This model attempts to bridge the cultural model and
the language model by focusing on the particular use of language in a text, as
well as placing it in a specific cultural context. Learners are encouraged to
express their opinions, feelings and opinions and make connections between
their own personal and cultural experiences and those expressed in the
text. Another aspect of this model is that it helps learners develop
knowledge of ideas and language – content and formal schemata – through
different themes and topics. This function relates to theories of reading
(Goodman, 1970) which emphasise the interaction of the reader with the text. As
Cadorath and Harris point out (1998:188) "text itself has no meaning, it
only provides direction for the reader to construct meaning from the reader's
own experience". Thus, learning is said to take place when readers are
able to interpret text and construct meaning on the basis of their own
experience.
These three approaches to teaching literature differ
in terms of their focus on the text: firstly, the text is seen as a cultural
artefact; secondly, the text is used as a focus for grammatical and structural
analysis; and thirdly, the text is the stimulus for personal growth activities.
What is needed is an approach to teaching literature in the language classroom
which attempts to integrate these elements in a way that makes literature
accessible to learners and beneficial for their linguistic development.
Integrated Model for Teaching Literature
According to Duff and Maley (1990), the main reasons
for integrating these elements are linguistic, methodological and motivational.
Linguistically, by using a wide range of authentic texts we introduce
learners to a variety of types and difficulties of English language. Methodologically,
literary discourse sensitises readers to the processes of reading e.g. the use
of schema, strategies for intensive and extensive reading etc. And, lastly, motivationally,
literary texts prioritise the enjoyment of reading since, as Short and Candlin
assert (1986), ‘if literature is worth teaching...then it seems axiomatic that
it is the response to literature itself which is important’. Interpretation of
texts by learners can bring about personal responses from readers by touching
on significant and engaging themes. An integrated model is a linguistic
approach which utilises some of the strategies used in stylistic analysis,
which explores texts, literary and non-literary, from the perspective of style
and its relationship to content and form. This involves the systematic and
detailed analysis of the stylistic features of a text – vocabulary, structure,
register etc. in order to find out ‘not just what a text means, but also
how it comes to mean what it does’ (Short, 1996). This suggested model
(O’Brien, 1999) integrates linguistic description with interpretation of the
text although for the benefit of the foreign language learners it is not as
technical, rigorous or analytical as the stylistics approach. With the careful selection
of the text, it can be adapted for all levels. Stage 1: Preparation and
Anticipation
This stage elicits learners’ real
or literary experience of the main themes and context of text.
Stage 2: Focusing
Learners experience the
text by listening and or reading and focusing on specific content in the text.
Stage 3: Preliminary Response
Learners give their initial response to the text -
spoken or written
Stage 4: Working at it - I
Focus
is on comprehending the first level of meaning through intensive reading.
Stage 5: Working at it – II
Focus is on analysis of the text at
a deeper level and exploring how the message is conveyed through overall
structure and any special uses of language - rhythm, imagery, word choice etc.
Stage 6: Interpretation and Personal Response
The focus of this final step is on increasing
understanding, enhancing enjoyment of the text and enabling learners to come to
their own personal interpretation of the text. This is based on the
rationale for the personal growth model.
The overall philosophy of the approaches can be
summarized as follows:
- Literary texts should appeal to the students interests, concerns and age; only then they have the potential to bring motivation in the language classroom and instill in the students a love for reading literature which goes on beyond classroom.
- The teaching of literature in language classroom should aim to elicit the students’ responses to the text, and to guide them to ‘a personal discovery’ thus, bringing in them the pleasure and enjoyment which comes from making the text their own.
- Literary texts should be approached as a resource and not for study not only for the students’ language and literary enrichment but as a motivating and a fruitful opportunity for their education and their personal growth.
- Literature in the language classroom should be explored in the light of a learner-centered pedagogy and as such it is meant a teaching which is centered on the students’ communicative needs, goals, aspirations, learning preferences
C. Conclusion
There are many benefits to using
literature in the language classroom. Apart from offering a distinct literary
world which can widen learners’ understanding of their own and other cultures,
it can create opportunities for personal expression as well as reinforce
learners’ knowledge of lexical and grammatical structure. Teaching literature
also can be used as one of the ways to integrate life skills in the language
classroom. Moreover, an integrated
approach to the use of literature offers learners strategies to analyse and
interpret language in context in order to recognize not only how language is
manipulated but also why. An
integrated approach to the use of literature in the language classroom offers
foreign language learners the opportunity to develop not only their linguistic
and communicative skills but their knowledge about language in all its
discourse types. The use of literary texts in the language classroom can be a
potentially powerful pedagogic tool.
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